Section Seven

A-C
Grammar
Present infinitive active and middle Set
Comparative and superlative adjectives fla ‘I went’
This is possibly the most taxing section to date: new accidence causes few problems, but sentence structure expands and syntax becomes more complex. In particular, the usage of participles extends. (Use the technique described in the Commentary on p. l0.3ff. to unravel complex sentences.) However, the grammat¬ical points are heavily revised in Sections 7-10, with much slighter grammar loading. Once again, be encouraging: even if everything is not crystal clear after Section 7, repetitions in later sections rehearse the lessons of Section 7.
Section Seven A
Background
Rhetoric and speeches 8.16-21 Lawcourt practice 6.39-58 (especially 46)
Delphi and the oracle 2.12; 3.17-19
Commentary
p. 74 line
1 8iapaAAouoi: the meaning can be extracted by careful attention to the English introduction. Derivations (like diabolical, and devil via Latin diabolus, Italian diavolo) do not help much in getting at the meaning ‘slander’.
2 8o^a: cf. orthodox, heterodox, paradox, doxology.
3 pouAo^eOa: help is needed with this phrase, as the infinitive occurs here for the first time.
5 lOTe: better taken as an imperative than an indicative.
6 ov8£v aAAo ^: all but n are known - try to elicit the meaning.
8 ei8£vai: the context should make the meaning clear. Note (a) evS- is the stem of ovSa (this is useful when the participle is met), (b) -vai is an infinitive ending (cf. eivai, vevai).
^apTupa: a martyr is one who witnesses to his belief.
11 Khairephon was introduced in Section 5d, Text p. 60.19 etc. - though there he was hardly a^oSpoc; (Text p. 74.12)! Point to the contrast in the two portraits of Socrates: despite Aristophanes’ presentation, Socrates must have been generally regarded as a serious intellectual - indeed this is presumably precisely why Aristophanes chose him as his butt. He would certainly have been recognized (Aelian, Var. Hist. ii.13 preserves the story that at the first performance of Clouds the real Socrates stood up so that foreigners could recognize him), and he was probably generally regarded as a great thinker. He appears to have had great faith in the oracle since Xenophon (Anabasis iii. 1.5) reports Socrates as advising him to consult an oracle before serving under Cyrus.
14 The comparatives are well placed in the context, and n has already occurred (p. 74.6) so there should be no problems. If the comparative is not translated correctly at first, read the sentence again stressing -Tep- and it should become clear.
Similarly with superlatives: if a reading stresses the -tot- followed by av0pranrav, there should be no difficulty. Point out that for reading purposes it is very nearly enough to know that -Tep- and -tot- signify comparative and super¬lative forms of the adjective. Only irregular forms need to be added (GE 159). Those who have not done Latin will need to be alerted to GE 157.
15 i£vai: if the -vai ending for an irregular infinitive has been noted (p. 74.8), there will be no problems here.
17 fiei: the context may give the meaning, but note this carefully and plot its morphology during Section 7a-c (see GE 161). 
£^avT€waTo: ^avrevo^ai: the two meanings, ‘consult an oracle’ (15) and ‘receive an oracular response’ (here), are initially somewhat confusing - explain the difficulty of translating something which is hardly conceived of in our language: the concept does not exist, so we have no vocabulary for it. Many -mancy derivations exist: all have the meaning ‘foretelling the future by means of ... ’ e.g., ornithomancy (flight of birds); necromancy (spirits of the dead); catoptromancy (mirrors). That ^avri; derives from ^aivo^ai should come as no surprise.
19 There are no serious grounds for doubting the authenticity of this oracle.
Section Seven B
Background
Socrates’ ‘ignorance’ 8.35 Inspiration and creativity 8.83-5 ^avri; 3.20
Commentary
p. 76 line
5 ^nopouv: this may be difficult to recognize: check methods of finding the lexicon form, GE p. 497.
7 £8OK€I: translate Soxera first time round as ‘I seem to myself’ and from that develop ‘I think I am.’ Translate Soxet (impersonal) as ‘it seems’.
8 ano9aw€iv: the transitive sense ‘make to appear’ can be used to reinforce the note on the ‘reflexive’ aspect of the middle; GE 124.
11 Trov rcapovrrov: note the use of the article + participle as a noun, cf. adstantes.
16 fia: refer back to p. 74.17 (fiei) and/or the sentence structure of line 7.
‘ Socrates used to swear by the dog, the goose and the plane tree’ (A. M. Adam - edition of Apology (Cambridge University press, 1914)).
Kvva: cf. cynic (Cynic because Diogenes of Sinope, founder of Cynicism, acquired the nickname of ‘the dog’ since he rejected all conventions, tried to live on nothing, and generally behaved scandalously. See Diogenes Laertius vi.46, 69; Plutarch, Moralia 1044b).
20 ^wiv: another foretaste! What shade of meaning suits best here?
20-1 On poets as inspired interpreters of the divine, cf. Aristophanes, Frogs, passim.
Section Seven C
Background
Leisure and speculation 5.50, 52 The rich 4.2l, 8.14
Early arguments over the gods 8.13, cf. 3.6 Questioning the gods 3.56-7 Death of Socrates 1.86
Commentary
p. 78 line
4 rca0o<;: the stem na0- was learnt with rc&a%ra; cf. pathos, pathology, osteopath, psychopath etc.
5 TauTnot: final -i was mentioned at GE 72 p. 62, but this is the first occurrence in the Text. Notice it here - it is very common in Aristophanes.
7 o/oA^v: suggest that school is what you do in your leisure time! i.e. time not consumed in working to keep body and soul together.
8 tppioxat: refer back to vPpic; earlier in the Text (p. 24.18).
13 l%rn + inf. means approximately ‘I am able’. Note this.
15 ^: this has occurred many times before, and is learnt in this section as ‘don’t’. If asked, explain that the indirect command retains the negative of the direct command.
Section Seven D
Background
Words and arguments 8.27 Arguing on both sides of a case 8.30 Dissatisfaction with sophistic quibbles 5.48-9
Grammar
Weak aorist participle active and middle Aspect
'flSn, ^np^ s^nv
Weak aorist participles are introduced. Those unfamiliar with the concept of aspect should read the note in GE 165. As so many other concepts are introduced in this section, it may be advisable to postpone a full explanation of aspect until Section 9f-g, where the aorist imperative will be met and the distinction must be made. After all, the English ‘-ing’ can cover both ‘aspects’ satisfactorily, pro tem.
It is important to impress on students the different stems and endings to expect with present and aorist participles. Make a grid which revises the change from present indicative to present participle (active and middle); then plot the aorist indicative and wait for examples of the aorist participle in the Text before inserting them in the grid, e.g.: 






The absence of the augment in participles should be elicited from students: an important point. Identify the form accurately, reconstruct the parallel form of navra, and insert this in the grid.
Commentary
p. 79 line
1 AvKeiov: for the gymnasium and baths, see the map in the Text p. 92. The role of athletics in education has already been noticed (see above, on 65.24); mention also the exercise-ground where this discussion takes place as a meeting-place. Try to anticipate the trend of the argument here: tell students that the contention centres around the dual meaning pav0avra - ‘I learn/I understand’ - the distinction between ‘clever’ = ‘capable of learning’, and ‘clever’ = ‘learned’. There are many other ironic passages in Euthydemos: a salutary reminder that Plato has a sense of humour!
3 rcpoTp£rcovTe<;: Tpenopai occurred in Section 4D; here there is an active, transitive sense.
6 ^iAooo^av Kai apeT^v: stress the former as education, the latter as ‘good¬ness’ generally (‘what is admirable in a person or a thing’).
p. 80 line
17 aKovoa^: this is the first aorist participle to occur - ‘on hearing’. Identify the form accurately, construct the equivalent form of navra and enter rcavaac; in the grid. It is pedagogically most instructive if they translate the form as if it were ^Kouaac.
18 anoKpivov^ai: it will probably be necessary to remind pupils that it must be future (verbs with stems ending in -A -p -v -p).
21 rcoTepoi: note that both Greek and Latin use ‘whether ... or’ where English omits ‘whether’.
22 a^aOei^: a- privative + stem pa0-.
23 £pMTn^a: identify the part of speech. What root can be recognized? Cf. other nouns in -pa, e.g. npaypa. For noun formation, see GE pp. 490-1.
anop^oa^: pay attention to the aspect - ‘struck dumb’ may be a good approximation. Epu0piravTa (line 25) and yeAaaac; (line 27) are good aspectual examples. 
Section Seven E
Commentary
p. 81 line
7 the past tense of oiSa is introduced in this section, though only the first
and second persons plural occur.
Supplementary exercises
Obviously the transformations should begin from the aorist indicative to the aorist participle and back again; but then from the present participle to the aorist participle and vice versa. Expand the participial forms by supplying previously learnt nouns in the nominative singular, and ask students to choose the participial form which is appropriate to each gender; then ask them to translate both noun and participle. Students should realize early that participles share functions with both verbs and adjectives.
Section Seven G
Grammar
Strong aorist participle active and middle
avro;, o avro;, avrov
Svva^ai
Strong aorist participles are introduced in Section 7g-h, but if weak aorist participles have been assimilated well, strong aorists should cause no problems. Revise the strong aorist list on GE 125 before beginning this section, stressing the stem change again. If the same type of grid as in 7d above (p. 5l) comparing present with aorist is used, surprise and pleasure result as the endings of the strong aorist participle unfold - just like the present!
avro; is introduced in all three main senses: this must be covered separately (see GE 173-6), whereas Svva^ai should present no problem. What students find taxing here is the more complex sentence, which reduces reading speed consid¬erably; but the gains in terms of understanding - particularly in wide-ranging use of participles - are enormous. Additionally, since it is a good story, it keeps the attention.
Background
Herodotus 8.40-1; 9.3 vo^oc/^vm; 8.32
Greek view of women (for comparison with Scythians) 3.ll-l2, 4.21-3, 5.17-29 For another perspective on alien women 9.3 
Commentary
p. 82
The introduction points again to the vopoc/^vaic; distinction which is central to the story here. Herodotus is full of superb stories illustrating this distinction, including Dareios and the Indians (III.38), which ends with the Pindar quotation vopoc navTrav PaaiAevc; or ‘It all depends how you’ve been brought up. ’ vopoc; is cognate with vopftra because Athenian law was quite simply what the majority of Athenians acknowledged.
p. 83 line
I €iorc€oovT€<; should be immediately recognized as a participle; break up into eic-, nea-, and ask of what verb nea- is the stem (this should have been learnt in Section 2B with nmra).
3 ft€piovoa<;: elicit the meaning via ‘being’, ‘around’, ‘about’, i.e. left over after the battle.
p. 84 line
8 arcopaoai: ano-, + Pn-/Pa-, from Pawra, met in Section ia, GE 12.
9 ircrco^oppiov: the meaning is obvious when the next clause is translated.
II av€iAov: the principal parts of aipera are not learnt until Section 9h-j (GE 211); the stem eA- may be known, but students always find this one of the most difficult Greek verbs to recognize, particularly in the unaugmented aorist forms of compounds. Add the aorist tense to the principal parts list (begun at the end of Section 6c-d: see on p. 68.26). Reinforce this when it reoccurs.
13 Students are alerted to the fact that arnoc; usages are coming; note the usages as they occur.
13-19 The whole paragraph is a good example of the wide-ranging usage of participles. Stop at the end of the paragraph and retranslate, stressing participial phrases each time with a literal ‘-ing’ version, then with as wide a range of English phrases or clauses as possible. Greater fluency in translation results. Quiz the participles by giving students this paragraph with appropriate indica¬tive verbs and Kav substituted for the participles and ask them to transform the indicatives back into participles: e.g. syvraaav TauTa Kai ... (anenep^av) for yvovTec TauTa ...
Section Seven H
Commentary
p. 86 line
1 ^xp^xo: give the meaning simply as ‘make love to’ - and encourage the link with xpaopai ‘I use’ (cf. on p. 54.14).
3 TO avxo xropfov: here the second usage of avro; occurs, which can be deduced from the context and added to the note on avro;. To complete the note, avr^ (line 4) should be given to students (to discourage ideas that avro; in the nominative can mean ‘this’ or ‘that’).
8 Ta y€vo^va: notice this carefully - a very common phrase; it is also typical of many others.
11- 12 Note the ‘reversal of role’ here: the Amazons take the men away from their homes, telling men what to do; the men are the subservient partners. Herodotus has fascinating records of matrilinear succession (i.ll, 173; III.150;
iv. 26, 147, 176).
15 £pya 8£ yuvairaia: note how Herodotus reads Greek conventions into alien women’s lives ...
17 a^a^ai^: yet here he reverts to supposed alien ignorance of Greek conventions!
22 ^a<; £^i ^opo^ TK; ^£ya<; will probably be correctly translated as ‘We have great fear’, but pause to check the structure and cf. on p. 34.9.
24 Forms of varn^i begin to appear sporadically hereafter; stress the ara- stem as ‘set up/stand’; do nothing further until Section 12C when it is dealt with fully.
Supplementary exercises
You may want to rehearse strong and weak aorist indicatives and participles more thoroughly with a few more transformation exercises. It is also worth setting a major vocabulary test at this point since the vocabulary of Sections 6 and 7 is so large and important.
Do not move forward until you are sure that the strong aorist list on p. 125 of GE is known by heart, and that the principles of constructing the aorist are thoroughly understood; particularly the problem of finding the lexicon form (see GE pp. 436¬42, where aorist stems are specially quoted in the principal part list). If this is done thoroughly, the rest of the Course becomes far easier for all concerned, and a really good reading speed can be achieved.
Test Exercise
The Test Exercise after Section 7f is particularly important as it is the first not based upon the text. This can present some problems but, as often with Plato, it is not so much the Greek as the thought that causes problems of comprehension. Read (and amplify if necessary) the English note which precedes the Test Exercise. Also note that, in addition to exercises covering individual points as met, there are some exercises at the end of GE covering a variety of general points (pp. 157-8).