Section Nine

A-E
Background
Lawcourts 2.35; 6.40-1; 4.2 Grammar
Dative (all types) and usages epraTara, Aav0avra
All the most common forms of the dative occur in Section 9a. Note them as they occur; the definite article goes into its grid (which can do duty for both first and second declensions); the third declension goes into the summary grid (see the Notes on Section 3, ad init.).
For simple recognition purposes, stress the -i ending for all dative singulars (subscript in first and second declensions, but note the growing practice of printing it adscript); -ic or -ai(v) in the plural.
Stress in particular that the dative plural present participle (-ouai) resembles in spelling the third person plural of the present indicative. Add the ‘irregular’ dative plurals XEpa^ (which should be entered in the full Vocabulary at the back of GE (p. 516), since it occurs later on) and avSpaai.
Discussion
A long section, with a very slow dramatic prologue which is essential as it sets up the plot. Here for the first time it may be advisable to translate a passage or two for the students provided that all examples of the dative in Section 9A-C are carefully noted. One way to speed the reading is simply to give any words not immediately recalled (rather than ask around or try derivations, etc.). If time is very short, most or all of Section 9C can be translated for the students since most dative forms have been met by then and the section needs much explanation.
Section Nine A
Commentary
p. 100 line
11 xpao^ai: met here in the sense of ‘use’. Mention its ubiquity in such phrases as Pofi xpropai; suggest ‘use a shout’ as a literal, never-to-be-written version!
Section Nine B
Background
Sacrifices 2.14; 3.28-32 Homosexuality 5.32ff.
Commentary
p. 101 line
5 £yvro: this ‘root’ aorist is listed in GE 209 p. 20l.
8 £pwTM: be alert for the usage of the stem ep- (strong aorist npopnv) in this section. To avoid confusion, le^ra is used for the future of leyra - but be warned: the future stem ep- is also to be learnt in this section (in GE 194), though it is not used in the Text until p. 126.20.
13 ^iloKupov: ^ilo- + Ku^o;: cf. cube etc.
17 ^ilo0vTnv ^ilo- + 0-: ^ilo0vrn; and ^ilo^evo; would naturally both be compliments; they are used here simply for ‘digs’ at Nikostratos (not in our text) and Philoxenos.
Section Nine C
Background
^ilnliaarn; 6.40-1
Commentary
Why was Philokleon’s jury-mania regarded as so harmful/dangerous? One clue comes in Test Exercise 9 (from another section of Wasps): the old man complains to his fellow jurors that Bdelykleon won’t allow him ‘to serve as a dikast and do some evil’. It is no passion for justice that motivates him, but the power to do some harm. The same idea emerges in his last few words in our text: ‘Pardon me, gods -1 unwittingly acquitted someone.’ The whole portrayal in Aristophanes is of power-mad, powerful yet irresponsible old men; power¬less (or at any rate less powerful) physically, they seek power through another outlet.
p. 102 line
3 ... ^£pa<;: expressions of time are covered in this section (GE p. 181).
4 £paoT^<;: eprac; gives Eros, erotic; notice also pederasty (naiS-, epaaT^c).
6 Kn^o^: technically a wicker funnel inserted into the mouth of the voting urn to make the insertion of pebbles easier and more secret.
15 ‘Kleon-lover’, ‘Kleon-loather’: on Kleon see the ‘Background’ references for Section 9D.
Section Nine D
Background
Kleon 1.58, 62-3; 6.17
Commentary p. 104 line
11 ^oyro ... £pyro: note the Greek love of contrasts.
15 Kanvn may be guessed from the stage directions; for yo^ev, refer back to yo^oc; (Text p. 4.14).
14 Kanvo^: elicit the meaning via Kanvn.
21 Chimney-lids: some sort of cover to keep out the weather when the fire was not lit.
22 = Wasps 149 (perhaps note the complete iambic trimeter).
Section Nine E
CD
Section 9E-H is recorded on CD 2, tracks 33-6. 
Commentary
p. 105 line
5 vou^nv^a: first day of the month was market day.
11 ^fovo;: see picture. A ‘semi-donkey’: the mule is technically the offspring of a male donkey and a mare.
rcwAeiv: cf. monopoly.
12 avToi; Toi; KavOnWoi;: give the translation of the whole phrase.
14 8uva^nv: the -ai- based optative foreshadows the weak aorist middle optative (GE 212).
15- 16 Variant forms of comparison occur side by side; useful for reinforcement.
15 The Odysseus story is probably familiar, but rehearse it here including the ‘nobody’ joke, which will help explain owic; (p. 106.25). Sophocles (fr. 965), like Homer (Od. XIX.407), puns on the name Odysseus:
op0fflc S’ ’OSuaaevi; sip’ snravupoc KOKOI^. noAAoi yap fflSvaavro SuaaePeii; spot.
p. 106 line
27 Arco8paoircm8ou: ano-, 8pa^-, inno;: with help, all the components of this coinage can be recalled: ‘Son of Fitzrunawayhorse’.
As mentioned in the Text p. 53, the words become ever closer to the original. Point this out by having the text of Wasps open during the rest of this section, showing the degree of similarity, e.g. Text p. 106.33 and Wasps 196.
32 &Oei: cf. osmosis, which may be thought of as ‘suction’. However, the laws of physics do not recognize any such force as suction, which is always a driving force, viz. thrusting (®0era).
34 MOo;: cf. monolith, megalith, photolithograph etc.
45-7 A complex sentence; help may be needed. If necessary, revert to the traditional ‘find the subject, find the verb’ here.
Section Nine F-G
Background
Pay for jury-service 6.41, 51 Grammar
Aorist infinitive active and middle
Aorist imperative active and middle (inc. evpi, evpi, ovSa)
^epra, E^EOTI, Seivoc;, rcac;
Revise the aorist indicative and participle and grid them, so that students can see how the infinitives and imperatives build on the aorist stem. For the -aov aorist imperative, Kvpie, elenaov may help. Now is the time to discuss aspect (GE 165) if you did not do so in 7d-f. If you did, review it here.
The text now skips to Wasps 764.
Section Nine F
Commentary
p. 107 line
8 8iKaoai: students will automatically translate this as an infinitive. Stop, look, and tabulate.
p. 108 line
12 oiK€Tai^: dative after Sixaaai (not after e^earai).
17 KaTaoKonov: Kara, axonera. Cf. various English -scope words, including the baffling stethoscope - used for listening. Note episcopal, from enaKono;, the Christian Greek word for a bishop or ‘overseer’.
18 f^£oTai: it may be necessary to point out that this is a future tense. Revise the future of e^p^ here.
22 ^io0ov: note one of Philokleon’s highest priorities.
30 Mention that the principal parts of ^epra are coming, and are highly irregular; e^ara (line 3l) and e^nveyxov (line 40) can then be noted, pointing out the peculiarity of both strong and weak aorist endings on the eveyx- stem.
47 £o0feiv: can be given a similar treatment to ^epra.
Section Nine G
Background
Urns cf. 6.7
xleyvSpa Fig. 6.8 p. 22l
Commentary
p. 110 line
4 aKouoov: note this especially - it is always the most difficult form of the weak aorist to recognize.
9 Two voting urns, one for guilty and one for innocent. Jurors placed their pebbles in one or the other - cf. p. 118.9.
17 rcavoai: distinguish this clearly from the aorist infinitive (navaai occurs as the third person singular of the aorist optative in Section 10).
Ku^p^a: cymbals. The singular of this word occurs later (Section 17B.8).
p. 111 line
24 KAeyvSpa: ‘water-stealer’.
24 a^i;: note the picture: when the pot is full, the case has lasted long enough!
33 KaTnyopera: KaTa + ayop- (speak against).
Section Nine H
Background
Coming to trial 6.49
Commentary
p. 112 line
1 Third person imperatives: it is tempting to give them little more than a passing glance. In their simplest form, the endings are -Tra/-vTrav for all third person singular and plural imperatives active; -a0ra/-a0rav for middle. If they are treated cursorily here, draw attention to examples in the Test Exercise when setting it.
1 Note the use of ^evyrav (and later SiraKrav, 12) in legal sense: defendant and plaintiff.
5 dKovoax’: this is nearly always taken as an indicative (particularly because of ^Sn), but use the mistake to emphasize again the need to notice the absence of the augment.
6 There is some evidence that Kleon may have intended prosecuting Lakhes, though why is uncertain. That Aristophanes intended Kuon v Labes as a topical reference to Kleon v Lakhes is made certain by the mention of Kudathene (Kleon’s own deme). For further detail, see note on Text p. 113. This political aspect of the dog scene has been suppressed in the text.
7 Kaxa^ayrav: the Greek idiom is ‘eat down’, cf. English ‘eat up’, ‘gulp down’. 16 This always causes trouble. Translate: ‘This (dog) seems to me to be another Labes’ (i.e. ‘Grabber’ - just as thievish as the first dog).
p. 114 line
20 The dog’s caper round the courtroom is not to be found in the original.
27 £A£iv: here in the legal sense: ‘convict’.
30 aKowavxa: ask the reason for the accusative.
31 Kuvrov ... av8pa: an intentional absurdity.
32 ^ovo^ayfaxaTov: elicit povo-, ^ay- and the superlative ending.
39 £rcfaTaTai + infinitive in the sense ‘know how to’ should be mentioned here - it recurs again soon (p. 116.12, and p. 118.12). Cf. English ‘epistemology’. 
Section Nine I
Background
Goat’s milk/cheese 2.16 Witnesses and evidence 6.47
Commentary
p. 116 line
8- 9 ‘Able to guard many sheep ’: note that (a) such a plea would be irrelevant in a modern court; yet establishing a good character - regardless of irrelevance - was normal (Section 13g suggests just such pleading); (b) the irrelevance is not quite so great as it seems at first. Cheese was made from sheep’s milk (see Euripides, Cyclops 206ff.) so guarding the sheep meant ensuring the source for more cheese! Modern scientific evidence indicates that Europeans have adapted to the digestion of cow’s milk, which can be fatal to systems not accustomed to it. Note also the derivation of butter from Powupov = cow-cheese.
11 ei ...: note how Bdelykleon admits Labes may be guilty of the offence, but does not deserve to be condemned on these grounds. Contrast modern legal practice!
12 KiOap^eiv: essential in Greek education (see Plato, Protagoras 325-6; cf. note on evpu0pia on p. 64.25). The phrase really means ‘He hasn’t had a good education. ’
13 The shape of Greek cheese-graters is not apparent from illustration, but neither here nor in Lysistrata does that matter! (Lysistrata 231).
16 Elicit KaTEKvnaac; from TupoKvnaTic; - again cf. Greek ‘grate down’, English ‘grate up’.
d^or&poi;: cf. amphibian, amphitheatre, amphora.
21 I.e. Dog’s work is indoors, less arduous than Labes’.
22 oma: cf. parasite, sitomania, sitophobia.
23 ^n^£v: this use of the negative with a participle to indicate an ‘if’ clause may be mentioned here. It occurs a few times more where the idea can be reinforced. 29-30 The comic effect of mixing singular (ae, nmep) with plural (ovKTipaTe, and anoAvaaTe in the next line as if to a massed jury) cannot easily or neatly be translated. Draw attention to it.
30 The puppies parody the typical parade of weeping dependent relatives in Athenian courts.
35-6 Karapavro; avrov: not a genitive absolute, as it initially appears; KaTaSiK&Zouaiv + genitive.
Section Nine J
Background 
Commentary
p. 118 line
2 an€8aKpuoa: Philokleon blames his bursting into tears on the soup, rather than pity.
7 p€lriw = Pelriova (as the ra indicates); revision of this form here does no harm.
8 voTfipro: viz. the acquittal urn. Juries filed past two urns, the nearer for condemnation, the further for acquittal, and deposited their pebbles in one. Cf. on p. 102.7.
10 Taken from Bdelykleon’s defence (p. 116.12) - a ‘boomerang joke’.
14 rapfaaTov: cf. peripatetic.
22 ayrov^o^ai: here almost in sense of settle a contest - ‘What’s the result of our trial, then?’
24 Presumably there is comic business here in counting ‘all’ the one vote!
29 vuv: emphasize the force of unaccented vuv here: ‘well, then’.
33 Note that n^aopai may be from rc&a%ra or n^0opai (here clearly the former, but use it to draw attention to GE 2ll).
Test Exercise
This Test Exercise is very important; it is a fresh piece and not an adaptation from the Text. Revise the third person imperatives before setting it.

Section Eight

A-C
Background
For the comic background, see the references in Section 5A
Aristophanes and politics 1.58, 8.78ff.; and fantasy 8.77
Part-source of this scene 3.24
ayopa 2.27-9, 33-7
K^a EKKAna^a 6.7ff. (esp. 10)
Grammar
Genitive (all types) and usages Irregular comparatives, and contracted comparatives Present optative active and middle av + optative
avfoxapai, anoAera, TV + participle, ievai, irav, nepiKA^c;
Not a section to linger over - the content is slight, accidence fairly light (all genitives occur, but plural genitives have been mentioned anyway, so there are only three or four endings to add to the grid). Summarize the genitive singular as:
1st decl.: -ncrao
2nd decl.: -ou } cf- definite artkk 3rd decl.: -oc;/-ouc; (=-eoc contracted)
The optative is the main new point; its accidence is simple and its only usage as yet is for the ‘polite request’. Stress -oi- in the present, -ai- in the aorist, and -ei- in irregulars.
Section Eight A
Commentary p. 90
Genitives occur frequently here. All the important terminations can be found on this page alone. Of the usages (GE 180) only comparisons are likely to cause problems. Names: try to elicit the ideas behind Euelpides and Peisetairos.
p. 90 line
1 ayopav: cf. agoraphobia; note the frequency of -ayopac; as a name termination.
3 drciovxa will be forgotten or confused with ovTa. Revise both rav and irav here, and stress the importance of the difference.
Kaxi8rov: despite the pointer in line 3 and despite the fact that the i5- stem was introduced in Section 1, this still causes difficulty. Reinforce firmly.
8 Note the use of the genitive: cf. ‘take hold of.
nai^: slave - cf. the French expression ‘Garmon!’ = ‘Waiter!’.
p. 91 line
14 £v€Ka: note as ‘postposition’, cf. Latin causa.
21 rpexra (Spap-) learnt in section 3D, but it probably needs reiterating here. Kavow: see the picture.
19 xvpio; has a wide range of meanings, usually involving some sense of ‘power’, ‘ability’, ‘validity’. Cf. later usages (in the Text pp. 132.1, 178.13, 184.9, 208.21). It became the ‘Lord’ in the phrase ‘Lord Jesus Christ’, cf. Kyrie eleison.
p. 92 line
20 KopaKa can be recalled if you have already given the literal meaning of ev; Kopaxa;.
29 avioTa^0a: elicit via av-, ara-, -pe0a.
30 l£yoiT€: ask what person of what verb. Establish the approximate meaning first and then explain that it is optative, used for a ‘polite request’ - and often hardly distinguishable from an ordinary future. (A fine example of this in Herodotus, Text pp. 233.9-234.l0.) Stress that -oi- is used in the present optative, -ai- in the weak aorist (still to be introduced), and -ei- in irregulars.
31 aKovoi^i: the person is fixed by eyra. Pause here and ask students to fill in the other active endings (the third person plural must be given).
32 anpay^ova: cf. Euripides, Antiope fr. 193:
OOTI; Ss npaaaei rcoAla npaaaeiv napov, prapo;, napov Zflv ^Ssra; arcpaypova.
37 ^y€^rov: cf. hegemony - also the name Hegestratos (Section l), almost the opposite of Lysistrata.
Section Eight B
Background
Sixaarnpia 6.39ff.
Athenian litigiousness 6.54
Athenians and rhetoric 6.14-17
The ‘new politicians’ l.58
Importance of aristocrats l.l7, 58; 6.16, 20
Commentary
p. 94 line
1 The irregular comparative of peya; occurs here - GE Vocabulary p. 171. 
2 The first genitive of comparison occurs here - cf. the other type of comparison in line 1; cf. Latin ablative of comparison.
3 There is little point in spending much time on the added -eox- if the Course is being used to teach reading. Comparatives and superlatives are still shown by - Tep- and -TOT-.
11 Paperac ^epra: recall Papvc; (p. 45.2), cf. aegre fero. For an extended use of Papvc, see the delightful aphorism in Sophocles’ (?), Aletes (Tr.GF. ii.1c):
avqp yap OOTU; •qSsTai Asyrav asi AsAn0£v amov xoi^ ^uvofioiv &v Papv^.
With help (especially with AeAn0ev) students can translate this.
12 The problems of dikasts have already been met (p. 66.23), and are dealt with more fully in the next section.
13- 4 8iKaoT^piov: for ‘-ery’ as a place of work cf. on p. 60.3.
15 KaTeyn^oavTo: this may be guessed from the KOT- element and the context alone. Stress the yn^- stem: it becomes vital in Section 9 (and later in the Neaira and Euergos sections). Cf. psephology.
16 yeu8o^apTup^av: both yeuS- and papTuc; are known.
19-21 This is taken almost verbatim from Aristophanes’ Birds 39-41.
22 Refer to earlier discussions on Periclean policy (pp. 34.23ff., 42.25ff., and 134.13ff. later).
24 Note the double sense of nyovpai = ‘I lead’ and ‘I consider’: cf. Latin duco. 31-2 See Aristophanes, Knights 304ff. ‘Attic’ declension.
32 rcW:ro<;: explain only if asked. It is not actually -a- contract as explained in the vocabulary in GE p. 172.
Section Eight C
Background
Attitudes to Pericles 1.45; 6.26-7 Benefits of empire 6.81-2 Pericles’ court-case 1.57; 4.10; 6.26-7 Yearning for peace 7.4 Festivals 3.41-55 Pessimism 3.23
Commentary
p. 96 line
15 K^orc^v: the combined effects of the plague, the failure of peace overtures to the Spartans and Pericles’ unsuccessful attempt to capture Epidauros were such as to make the Athenians look for a scapegoat (one danger of such radical democracy). Pericles was suspended from the post of aTparnyoc; and forced to submit his accounts for inspection. A jury of 501 found these accounts were five talents adrift (Thucydides II.59-65 for Pericles’ defence). His conviction was secured by Kleon but, despite being found guilty and fined, he was very soon re-elected aTpaTnyoc;.
17 novnpoc: Peisetairos’ view - not that of the electorate voting him back to power.
25 NB the philosophers’ question - this again boils down to whether ‘good’ in any sense is relative or absolute: cf. the vopoc/^vaic; controversy.
28ff. Some help may be needed - much can be elicited by questions.
32 pou^o^nv: this is the only middle optative in the text of this section. However, the optative can be recognized and students can deduce the other persons of the tense (some help may be needed with the second person singular).
34 KaKa Xiy€iv: Aeyra is apparently followed by a second accusative, but the phrase almost = KaKoAoyevv + obj.
36 xorcov: see on p. 48.7. The name Ne^eAoKoKw^a does not occur in the text. Mention it, as it is used in the Test Exercise.
41, 43-4 Quotations from Odyssey 1.267; Homeric Hymn ii.216-17.
Note especially GE 188 - a very common type of phrase.

Section Seven

A-C
Grammar
Present infinitive active and middle Set
Comparative and superlative adjectives fla ‘I went’
This is possibly the most taxing section to date: new accidence causes few problems, but sentence structure expands and syntax becomes more complex. In particular, the usage of participles extends. (Use the technique described in the Commentary on p. l0.3ff. to unravel complex sentences.) However, the grammat¬ical points are heavily revised in Sections 7-10, with much slighter grammar loading. Once again, be encouraging: even if everything is not crystal clear after Section 7, repetitions in later sections rehearse the lessons of Section 7.
Section Seven A
Background
Rhetoric and speeches 8.16-21 Lawcourt practice 6.39-58 (especially 46)
Delphi and the oracle 2.12; 3.17-19
Commentary
p. 74 line
1 8iapaAAouoi: the meaning can be extracted by careful attention to the English introduction. Derivations (like diabolical, and devil via Latin diabolus, Italian diavolo) do not help much in getting at the meaning ‘slander’.
2 8o^a: cf. orthodox, heterodox, paradox, doxology.
3 pouAo^eOa: help is needed with this phrase, as the infinitive occurs here for the first time.
5 lOTe: better taken as an imperative than an indicative.
6 ov8£v aAAo ^: all but n are known - try to elicit the meaning.
8 ei8£vai: the context should make the meaning clear. Note (a) evS- is the stem of ovSa (this is useful when the participle is met), (b) -vai is an infinitive ending (cf. eivai, vevai).
^apTupa: a martyr is one who witnesses to his belief.
11 Khairephon was introduced in Section 5d, Text p. 60.19 etc. - though there he was hardly a^oSpoc; (Text p. 74.12)! Point to the contrast in the two portraits of Socrates: despite Aristophanes’ presentation, Socrates must have been generally regarded as a serious intellectual - indeed this is presumably precisely why Aristophanes chose him as his butt. He would certainly have been recognized (Aelian, Var. Hist. ii.13 preserves the story that at the first performance of Clouds the real Socrates stood up so that foreigners could recognize him), and he was probably generally regarded as a great thinker. He appears to have had great faith in the oracle since Xenophon (Anabasis iii. 1.5) reports Socrates as advising him to consult an oracle before serving under Cyrus.
14 The comparatives are well placed in the context, and n has already occurred (p. 74.6) so there should be no problems. If the comparative is not translated correctly at first, read the sentence again stressing -Tep- and it should become clear.
Similarly with superlatives: if a reading stresses the -tot- followed by av0pranrav, there should be no difficulty. Point out that for reading purposes it is very nearly enough to know that -Tep- and -tot- signify comparative and super¬lative forms of the adjective. Only irregular forms need to be added (GE 159). Those who have not done Latin will need to be alerted to GE 157.
15 i£vai: if the -vai ending for an irregular infinitive has been noted (p. 74.8), there will be no problems here.
17 fiei: the context may give the meaning, but note this carefully and plot its morphology during Section 7a-c (see GE 161). 
£^avT€waTo: ^avrevo^ai: the two meanings, ‘consult an oracle’ (15) and ‘receive an oracular response’ (here), are initially somewhat confusing - explain the difficulty of translating something which is hardly conceived of in our language: the concept does not exist, so we have no vocabulary for it. Many -mancy derivations exist: all have the meaning ‘foretelling the future by means of ... ’ e.g., ornithomancy (flight of birds); necromancy (spirits of the dead); catoptromancy (mirrors). That ^avri; derives from ^aivo^ai should come as no surprise.
19 There are no serious grounds for doubting the authenticity of this oracle.
Section Seven B
Background
Socrates’ ‘ignorance’ 8.35 Inspiration and creativity 8.83-5 ^avri; 3.20
Commentary
p. 76 line
5 ^nopouv: this may be difficult to recognize: check methods of finding the lexicon form, GE p. 497.
7 £8OK€I: translate Soxera first time round as ‘I seem to myself’ and from that develop ‘I think I am.’ Translate Soxet (impersonal) as ‘it seems’.
8 ano9aw€iv: the transitive sense ‘make to appear’ can be used to reinforce the note on the ‘reflexive’ aspect of the middle; GE 124.
11 Trov rcapovrrov: note the use of the article + participle as a noun, cf. adstantes.
16 fia: refer back to p. 74.17 (fiei) and/or the sentence structure of line 7.
‘ Socrates used to swear by the dog, the goose and the plane tree’ (A. M. Adam - edition of Apology (Cambridge University press, 1914)).
Kvva: cf. cynic (Cynic because Diogenes of Sinope, founder of Cynicism, acquired the nickname of ‘the dog’ since he rejected all conventions, tried to live on nothing, and generally behaved scandalously. See Diogenes Laertius vi.46, 69; Plutarch, Moralia 1044b).
20 ^wiv: another foretaste! What shade of meaning suits best here?
20-1 On poets as inspired interpreters of the divine, cf. Aristophanes, Frogs, passim.
Section Seven C
Background
Leisure and speculation 5.50, 52 The rich 4.2l, 8.14
Early arguments over the gods 8.13, cf. 3.6 Questioning the gods 3.56-7 Death of Socrates 1.86
Commentary
p. 78 line
4 rca0o<;: the stem na0- was learnt with rc&a%ra; cf. pathos, pathology, osteopath, psychopath etc.
5 TauTnot: final -i was mentioned at GE 72 p. 62, but this is the first occurrence in the Text. Notice it here - it is very common in Aristophanes.
7 o/oA^v: suggest that school is what you do in your leisure time! i.e. time not consumed in working to keep body and soul together.
8 tppioxat: refer back to vPpic; earlier in the Text (p. 24.18).
13 l%rn + inf. means approximately ‘I am able’. Note this.
15 ^: this has occurred many times before, and is learnt in this section as ‘don’t’. If asked, explain that the indirect command retains the negative of the direct command.
Section Seven D
Background
Words and arguments 8.27 Arguing on both sides of a case 8.30 Dissatisfaction with sophistic quibbles 5.48-9
Grammar
Weak aorist participle active and middle Aspect
'flSn, ^np^ s^nv
Weak aorist participles are introduced. Those unfamiliar with the concept of aspect should read the note in GE 165. As so many other concepts are introduced in this section, it may be advisable to postpone a full explanation of aspect until Section 9f-g, where the aorist imperative will be met and the distinction must be made. After all, the English ‘-ing’ can cover both ‘aspects’ satisfactorily, pro tem.
It is important to impress on students the different stems and endings to expect with present and aorist participles. Make a grid which revises the change from present indicative to present participle (active and middle); then plot the aorist indicative and wait for examples of the aorist participle in the Text before inserting them in the grid, e.g.: 






The absence of the augment in participles should be elicited from students: an important point. Identify the form accurately, reconstruct the parallel form of navra, and insert this in the grid.
Commentary
p. 79 line
1 AvKeiov: for the gymnasium and baths, see the map in the Text p. 92. The role of athletics in education has already been noticed (see above, on 65.24); mention also the exercise-ground where this discussion takes place as a meeting-place. Try to anticipate the trend of the argument here: tell students that the contention centres around the dual meaning pav0avra - ‘I learn/I understand’ - the distinction between ‘clever’ = ‘capable of learning’, and ‘clever’ = ‘learned’. There are many other ironic passages in Euthydemos: a salutary reminder that Plato has a sense of humour!
3 rcpoTp£rcovTe<;: Tpenopai occurred in Section 4D; here there is an active, transitive sense.
6 ^iAooo^av Kai apeT^v: stress the former as education, the latter as ‘good¬ness’ generally (‘what is admirable in a person or a thing’).
p. 80 line
17 aKovoa^: this is the first aorist participle to occur - ‘on hearing’. Identify the form accurately, construct the equivalent form of navra and enter rcavaac; in the grid. It is pedagogically most instructive if they translate the form as if it were ^Kouaac.
18 anoKpivov^ai: it will probably be necessary to remind pupils that it must be future (verbs with stems ending in -A -p -v -p).
21 rcoTepoi: note that both Greek and Latin use ‘whether ... or’ where English omits ‘whether’.
22 a^aOei^: a- privative + stem pa0-.
23 £pMTn^a: identify the part of speech. What root can be recognized? Cf. other nouns in -pa, e.g. npaypa. For noun formation, see GE pp. 490-1.
anop^oa^: pay attention to the aspect - ‘struck dumb’ may be a good approximation. Epu0piravTa (line 25) and yeAaaac; (line 27) are good aspectual examples. 
Section Seven E
Commentary
p. 81 line
7 the past tense of oiSa is introduced in this section, though only the first
and second persons plural occur.
Supplementary exercises
Obviously the transformations should begin from the aorist indicative to the aorist participle and back again; but then from the present participle to the aorist participle and vice versa. Expand the participial forms by supplying previously learnt nouns in the nominative singular, and ask students to choose the participial form which is appropriate to each gender; then ask them to translate both noun and participle. Students should realize early that participles share functions with both verbs and adjectives.
Section Seven G
Grammar
Strong aorist participle active and middle
avro;, o avro;, avrov
Svva^ai
Strong aorist participles are introduced in Section 7g-h, but if weak aorist participles have been assimilated well, strong aorists should cause no problems. Revise the strong aorist list on GE 125 before beginning this section, stressing the stem change again. If the same type of grid as in 7d above (p. 5l) comparing present with aorist is used, surprise and pleasure result as the endings of the strong aorist participle unfold - just like the present!
avro; is introduced in all three main senses: this must be covered separately (see GE 173-6), whereas Svva^ai should present no problem. What students find taxing here is the more complex sentence, which reduces reading speed consid¬erably; but the gains in terms of understanding - particularly in wide-ranging use of participles - are enormous. Additionally, since it is a good story, it keeps the attention.
Background
Herodotus 8.40-1; 9.3 vo^oc/^vm; 8.32
Greek view of women (for comparison with Scythians) 3.ll-l2, 4.21-3, 5.17-29 For another perspective on alien women 9.3 
Commentary
p. 82
The introduction points again to the vopoc/^vaic; distinction which is central to the story here. Herodotus is full of superb stories illustrating this distinction, including Dareios and the Indians (III.38), which ends with the Pindar quotation vopoc navTrav PaaiAevc; or ‘It all depends how you’ve been brought up. ’ vopoc; is cognate with vopftra because Athenian law was quite simply what the majority of Athenians acknowledged.
p. 83 line
I €iorc€oovT€<; should be immediately recognized as a participle; break up into eic-, nea-, and ask of what verb nea- is the stem (this should have been learnt in Section 2B with nmra).
3 ft€piovoa<;: elicit the meaning via ‘being’, ‘around’, ‘about’, i.e. left over after the battle.
p. 84 line
8 arcopaoai: ano-, + Pn-/Pa-, from Pawra, met in Section ia, GE 12.
9 ircrco^oppiov: the meaning is obvious when the next clause is translated.
II av€iAov: the principal parts of aipera are not learnt until Section 9h-j (GE 211); the stem eA- may be known, but students always find this one of the most difficult Greek verbs to recognize, particularly in the unaugmented aorist forms of compounds. Add the aorist tense to the principal parts list (begun at the end of Section 6c-d: see on p. 68.26). Reinforce this when it reoccurs.
13 Students are alerted to the fact that arnoc; usages are coming; note the usages as they occur.
13-19 The whole paragraph is a good example of the wide-ranging usage of participles. Stop at the end of the paragraph and retranslate, stressing participial phrases each time with a literal ‘-ing’ version, then with as wide a range of English phrases or clauses as possible. Greater fluency in translation results. Quiz the participles by giving students this paragraph with appropriate indica¬tive verbs and Kav substituted for the participles and ask them to transform the indicatives back into participles: e.g. syvraaav TauTa Kai ... (anenep^av) for yvovTec TauTa ...
Section Seven H
Commentary
p. 86 line
1 ^xp^xo: give the meaning simply as ‘make love to’ - and encourage the link with xpaopai ‘I use’ (cf. on p. 54.14).
3 TO avxo xropfov: here the second usage of avro; occurs, which can be deduced from the context and added to the note on avro;. To complete the note, avr^ (line 4) should be given to students (to discourage ideas that avro; in the nominative can mean ‘this’ or ‘that’).
8 Ta y€vo^va: notice this carefully - a very common phrase; it is also typical of many others.
11- 12 Note the ‘reversal of role’ here: the Amazons take the men away from their homes, telling men what to do; the men are the subservient partners. Herodotus has fascinating records of matrilinear succession (i.ll, 173; III.150;
iv. 26, 147, 176).
15 £pya 8£ yuvairaia: note how Herodotus reads Greek conventions into alien women’s lives ...
17 a^a^ai^: yet here he reverts to supposed alien ignorance of Greek conventions!
22 ^a<; £^i ^opo^ TK; ^£ya<; will probably be correctly translated as ‘We have great fear’, but pause to check the structure and cf. on p. 34.9.
24 Forms of varn^i begin to appear sporadically hereafter; stress the ara- stem as ‘set up/stand’; do nothing further until Section 12C when it is dealt with fully.
Supplementary exercises
You may want to rehearse strong and weak aorist indicatives and participles more thoroughly with a few more transformation exercises. It is also worth setting a major vocabulary test at this point since the vocabulary of Sections 6 and 7 is so large and important.
Do not move forward until you are sure that the strong aorist list on p. 125 of GE is known by heart, and that the principles of constructing the aorist are thoroughly understood; particularly the problem of finding the lexicon form (see GE pp. 436¬42, where aorist stems are specially quoted in the principal part list). If this is done thoroughly, the rest of the Course becomes far easier for all concerned, and a really good reading speed can be achieved.
Test Exercise
The Test Exercise after Section 7f is particularly important as it is the first not based upon the text. This can present some problems but, as often with Plato, it is not so much the Greek as the thought that causes problems of comprehension. Read (and amplify if necessary) the English note which precedes the Test Exercise. Also note that, in addition to exercises covering individual points as met, there are some exercises at the end of GE covering a variety of general points (pp. 157-8).

Section Six

A

Background

Physical speculation 8.7-8, 24 Mathematics and measurement 8.25-6 Thales 8.7

Grammar

Weak aorist active and middle o^pvc; (nom., acc.)

Make a grid, which first revises present and future tenses, and then introduces the aorist, thus:

Pres. act.	Fut. act.	Aor. act.	Pres. mid.	Fut. mid.	Aor. mid.
navra etc.	navara etc.	enauaa etc.	navopai etc.	navaopai etc.	enauaap^v etc.

Stress the -pnv -ao -to endings of the middle, and cf. the imperfect.

Use the same method as for the imperfect, viz. stop at eko^e (p. 63.3): ask what the augment indicates. Identify the person of the verb, explain the formation and ask what is the corresponding form of navra. Only then enter the results on the grid. The first and second persons singular appear in the next two lines (no more until p. 64.40). If the formation of the singular is clearly explained, plural endings follow by comparison with the imperfect.

The middle is more difficult. Only the first and third persons singular appear (p. 63.11, 64.17). The second person singular was originally -aaao; ‘intervocalic’ a drops ^ aao; this contracts ^ ara (cf. imperfect originally: eao ^ eo ^ ou).

Commentary

p. 64 line

21                The meanings of yvlla and o^pvv obviously have to be given; Saxvei may be recalled (54.12). According to the scholiast, Khairephon had shaggy eyebrows, while Socrates was bald.

23                Perhaps not the ideal refutation of the charge that the Greeks theorized well but failed to prove by experimentation. Yet the parody, to be humorous, must have had some foundation in fact. One need not be too explicit about how the experi­ment worked: one wouldn’t have time to work it out in the theatre.

24                 The Olympic crown was a wreath woven from the sacred olive tree at Olympia. Note the importance of athletics in Athenian education (see Plato, Protagoras 326b-d), and the emphasis the Just Argument places upon physical fitness. The very name Plato derives from a wrestling nickname because of his broad (nlarv;) shoulders, and it was so universally used that his real name Aristokles seldom appears. Note also the importance now given to Plato’s evpu0^ia in dance and drama lessons; modern schools for disabled children in particular stress this in attempts to improve physical co-ordination.

p. 65 line

46 Thales was the earliest of the Presocratic philosophers who came from Miletos. Herodotus tells us of two of his exploits: subdividing the river Halys so that it became fordable (l.75), and predicting an eclipse of the sun (l.74) - though according to Herodotus he predicted merely the year of the eclipse. Plato, Theaitetos l74a tells the well-known story of how he was studying the stars so intently that he fell down a well. Hence Aristophanes uses him as a typical ‘head- in-clouds’ intellectual. (But for Thales’ business acumen, see Aristotle, Politics l259a3.) Only one of the various absurd researches is included in the text: refer to the others, reading them in translation if there is time.

Section Six B

Background

Intellectual achievement of fifth-century Athens 8.15, 23 Technical work 8.24 Peloponnesian War l.53ff.

Commentary

p. 66 line

1              Not a hostile question: ‘What on earth are these creatures?’

11                Herodotus v.49 describes how Aristagoras brought a map to Sparta hoping to enlist Spartan aid against Persia; he earlier (iv.36) refers to ‘many people making

maps’. If ‘many’ maps had been made, they certainly appear to have been still quite a novelty at Athens in the fifth century - but they must certainly have been known or Strepsiades’ boorishness would not appear so comic.

22                 8iKaoTMv: explain the Sik- stem, + -Tnc suffix (usually = agent, cf. KeAemT^c;, Ku^epv^Tn? etc.). SlKaaTa^ get fuller treatment in Sections 9 and 12-17.

The entrance of Socrates, swinging in a basket, must be one of the funniest in European comedy. The pnxavn must have been used here, probably swinging Socrates in the basket over the heads of Strepsiades and the student while they were talking. There is no reference in the text to the use of the pnxavn (but note ‘Come down, Socratikins’ or ‘Socrateasy-weasy?’), and presumably he does so there or soon after). On the use of the pnxavn, read the sequence in Aristophanes’ Peace 149-79, where Trygaios reprimands the pnxavn-operator for driving with­out due care and attention. Note also that the pnxavn was used in tragedy for gods or heroes only, so Socrates’ appearance had an added effect for an Athenian audience.

Supplementary exercises

A pause here to revise present, future and aorist tenses is very important. Much very simple transformation work between the tenses (bring in the imperfect later on) is helpful: start with present ^ future and aorist; then future and aorist ^ present; then future ^ aorist and vice versa. Again, use the easiest verbs to start with.

Note: It is at this point that the concept of ‘principal parts’ could be introduced, and students should be asked to keep a list of the most important irregular verbs: there is a list of irregular verbs learnt in Sections 1 -5 on p. 149 of these Notes. Concentrate on regular principal parts for the moment (cf. GE pp. 435ff.).

Section Six C

Grammar

Strong aorist indicative active and middle

Section 6c-d introduces the strong, or second, aorist: there should be no problem with the endings, which are already known, so make a comparison between present, imperfect and strong aorist, viz.:

Pres. act.	Imperf. act.	Str. aor. act.	Pres. mid.	Imperf. mid.	Str. aor. mid.
AapP&vra	EAapPavov	eAaPov	AapPavopai	EAapPavopnv	EAaPopnv

At some stage a common pattern of stem change between present and aorist may be pointed out, viz.:

Aa[p]P[avra] ^ sAaPov pa[v]0[avra] ^ spa0ov Tu[y]%[avra] ^ £xu%ov

Warn students that the vocabulary does not distinguish weak or strong aorist stems. It is best to assume that an aorist stem is strong where it is given, and check with the irregular verb list in GE pp. 435ff.

Stress that the distinction between weak and strong past tenses can be paralleled in English: past tenses are formed either by a regular suffix -d/-ed, or by a change in the stem - either slight (I sit/sat) or strong (I go/went); in pronunciation only (read/read) or not at all (hit/hit). Mention also, when they occur, that three of the commonest (hence most irregular) stem changes have already been met: eA0-, ein-, iS-.

Commentary

p. 68 line

1              Note the personal identification: name, grandfather’s name Pheidon (see Clouds 134) and deme. The deme Kikunna is unknown.

1                Socrates’ words (his opening line in the original) are paratragic - again under­lining, as did his entrance by pn%av^, his hyper-human status and pretensions.

11ff. rehearses old material with the strong aorist inserted. Note especially ^pou: the two ep- stems usually cause confusion (they should not, because one always has active, the other middle endings - but they do!), although ep- (fut. of Aeyra) does not occur until Section 9a, q.v. (note on p. 101.8).

23                Spara: cf. drama, drastic.

25  a€popaTM: cf. aerobatics. ft€pi9povra: explain ^Ep^ + ^povra.

^Aiov: cf. heliotrope, heliocentric, helium. Quite a number of irregular prin­cipal parts must be learnt from this point on. Ask students to write out a list of about twenty, with four columns and a fifth for meaning (excluding perfects; for these see GE 260,267-8). This in itself is a useful revision exercise, and of course it is generally the most common verbs that are irregular. Other principal parts are then inserted as they occur in reading or in GE (cf. the list of irregular verbs in GE 389)

29                ^T£wpa: cf. meteor, meteorology.

Section Six D

Background

Arguing from both sides of the case 8.30 Magic 3.21

Commentary

p. 70 line

2               €T€po^: cf. heterosexual, heterogeneous, heterodox etc.

12                 KaxaKlwnOi: students rarely comment upon this as an odd form: if they do, pass over it as an oddity to be explained later (an aorist passive imperative form). Derivations are mainly from the Latin -clino, e.g. recline, incline, clinic etc.

27                 Evidence of masturbation? Alternatively, less pruriently, Strepsiades could be merely protecting his vitals from the bed-bugs.

38 ^ap^a^8a: cf. pharmacy.

KWiyro: cf. kleptomaniac.

p. 71 line

43                In the original, Socrates approves of Strepsiades’ plan.

Supplementary exercises

It is essential that students learn thoroughly the list of strong aorists on pp. 125-6 of GE. If they do not, there will be endless trouble and time-wasting. Full trans­formation drill between strong aorist, imperfect and present is very important, to fix the idea of stem change between aorist and present and the difference between aorist and imperfect. Build up exercises until lists of aorists (weak and strong) can reliably be changed into imperfects and vice versa.

Test Exercise

New accidence is very fully tested in this piece - go through translations carefully and immediately rectify weaknesses.